Silver is a metallic chemical element A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. The term is also used to refer to a pure chemical substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons. Common examples of elements are iron, copper, silver, gold, hydrogen, carbon, with the chemical symbol Chemical symbols may also be modified by the use of superscripts or subscripts to show a specific isotope of an atom. Additionally superscripts may be used to indicate the ionization or oxidation state of an element Ag (Latin Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. With the Roman conquest, Latin was spread to countries around the Mediterranean, including a large part of Europe. Romance languages such as Aragonese, Corsican, Catalan, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Sardinian, Spanish and others, are descended from Latin, while: argentum, from the Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia, and historically also predominant in Anatolia and Central Asia. With written attestations appearing since the Bronze Age, in the form of the Anatolian languages and Mycenaean root *arg- for "white" or "shining") and atomic number In chemistry and physics, the atomic number is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom and therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an atom of neutral charge, the atomic number is also equal to the number of 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal The name transition comes from their position in the periodic table of elements. In each of the four periods in which they occur, these elements represent the successive addition of electrons to the d atomic orbitals of the atoms. In this way, the transition metals represent the transition between group 2 elements and group 13 elements, it has the highest electrical conductivity Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is a measure of a material's ability to conduct an electric current. When an electrical potential difference is placed across a conductor, its movable charges flow, giving rise to an electric current. The conductivity σ is defined as the ratio of the current density J to the electric field strength of any element and the highest thermal conductivity In physics, thermal conductivity, k, is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat. It appears primarily in Fourier's Law for heat conduction. Thermal conductivity is measured in watts per kelvin per metre . Multiplied by a temperature difference (in kelvins, K) and an area (in square metres, m2), and divided by a of any metal. The metal occurs naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy An alloy is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal history. Alloys usually have different properties from those of the with gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin: aurum, "shining dawn", hence adjective, aureate) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal for coinage, jewelry, and other arts since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite Argentite was primarily treated as a mineral belonging to the galena group, cubic silver sulfide , occasionally found as uneven cubes and octahedra, but more often as dendritic or earthy masses, with a blackish lead-grey color and metallic lustre. All these forms are structurally not argentite, but its monoclinic polymorph, acanthite. Due to and chlorargyrite Chlorargyrite is the mineral form of silver chloride . Chlorargyrite occurs as a secondary mineral phase in the oxidation of silver mineral deposits. It crystallizes in the isometric - hexoctahedral crystal class. Typically massive to columnar in occurrence it also has been found as colorless to variably yellow cubic crystals. The color changes to. Most silver is produced as a by-product of copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and malleable, and a freshly exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy color. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a building material, and a, gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin: aurum, "shining dawn", hence adjective, aureate) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal for coinage, jewelry, and other arts since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial, lead Lead is a main-group element with symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a, and zinc Zinc , also known as spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the refining Refining is the process of purification of a (1) substance or a (2) form. The term is usually used of a natural resource that is almost in a usable form, but which is more useful in its pure form. For instance, most types of natural petroleum will burn straight from the ground, but it will burn poorly and quickly clog an engine with residues and.

Silver has long been valued as a precious metal A precious metal is a rare, naturally occurring metallic chemical element of high economic value, which is not radioactive . Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high lustre, are softer or more ductile, and have higher melting points than other metals. Historically, precious metals were important as currency,, and it is used to make ornaments, jewelry, high-value tableware, utensils (hence the term silverware Household silver or silverware refers to dishware, cutlery and other household items made of sterling, Britannia or Sheffield plate silver. The term is often extended to items made of stainless steel. Silver is sometimes bought in sets or combined to form sets, such as a set of silver candlesticks or a silver tea service), and currency coins Coins are usually metal or a metallic material and sometimes made of synthetic materials, usually in the shape of a disc, and most often issued by a government. Coins are used as a form of money in transactions of various kinds, from the everyday circulation coins to the storage of large numbers of bullion coins. In the present day, coins and. Today, silver metal is also used in electrical contacts and conductors In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is a material which contains movable electric charges. In metallic conductors, such as copper or aluminum, the movable charged particles are electrons . Positive charges may also be mobile in the form of atoms in a lattice that are missing electrons (known as holes), or in the form of ions, such, in mirrors and in catalysis Catalysis is the change in rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation of a substance called a catalyst. Unlike other reagents that participate in the chemical reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in multiple chemical transformations. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive of chemical reactions. Its compounds are used in photographic film Photographic film is a sheet of plastic coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin) with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film. When the emulsion is sufficiently exposed to light (or other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays), it forms and dilute silver nitrate solutions and other silver compounds are used as disinfectants Disinfectants are substances that are applied to non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially not resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than sterilisation, which is an extreme physical and / or chemical process that kills all types of and microbiocides. While many medical antimicrobial An antimicrobial is a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, or protozoans. Antimicrobial drugs either kill microbes or prevent the growth of microbes (microbistatic). Disinfectants are antimicrobial substances used on non-living objects uses of silver have been supplanted by antibiotics In common usage, an antibiotic is a substance or compound that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth. Antibiotics belong to the broader group of antimicrobial compounds, used to treat infections caused by microorganisms, including fungi and protozoa, further research into clinical potential continues.

Contents 1 Characteristics 2 Creation 3 Isotopes 4 Compounds 5 Applications 5.1 Currency 5.2 Jewelry and silverware 5.3 Dentistry 5.4 Photography and electronics 5.5 Mirrors and optics 5.6 Other industrial and commercial applications 5.7 Medicinal 5.8 Clothing 6 History 7 Occurrence and extraction 8 Price 9 Precautions 9.1 Monitoring excessive human exposure 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Characteristics

Silver 1000 oz The ounce is a unit of mass with several definitions, the most commonly used of which are equal to approximately 28 grams. The ounce is used in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems. Its size can vary from system to system. The most commonly used ounces (~30 kg) bullion bar

Silver is a very ductile Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically without fracture and malleable Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically without fracture (slightly harder than gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin: aurum, "shining dawn", hence adjective, aureate) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal for coinage, jewelry, and other arts since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial) monovalent coinage metal A Group 11 element is one in the series of elements in group 11 in the periodic table, consisting of transition metals which are the traditional coinage metals of copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). Roentgenium (Rg) belongs to this group of elements based on its electronic configuration, but cannot be considered coinage metal (short lived with a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high degree of polish Polishing is the process of creating a smooth and shiny surface by rubbing it or using a chemical action, leaving a surface with a significant specular reflection In some materials (such as metals, glasses, black or trasparent stones) polishing is also able to reduce diffuse reflection to minimal values. When an unpolished surface is magnified. It has the highest electrical conductivity Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is a measure of a material's ability to conduct an electric current. When an electrical potential difference is placed across a conductor, its movable charges flow, giving rise to an electric current. The conductivity σ is defined as the ratio of the current density J to the electric field strength of all metals A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals. In chemistry, a metal is an element, compound, or alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). Those ions are surrounded by, even higher than copper, but its greater cost and tendency to tarnish Tarnish is a thin layer that forms over copper, brass, silver, aluminum, and other semi-reactive metals as their outermost layer undergoes a chemical reaction. Tarnish is mainly caused by chemicals in the air, such as sulfur dioxide. It often appears as a usually dull, gray or black film or coat over metal. Tarnish is a surface phenomena, that is have prevented it from being widely used in place of copper for electrical purposes. Despite this, 13,540 tons were used in the electromagnets An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases used for enriching uranium Uranium is a silvery-white metallic chemical element in the actinide series of the periodic table with atomic number 92. It is assigned the chemical symbol U. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, in which 6 of the electrons are valence electrons. The uranium nucleus binds between 141 and 146 neutrons, establishing six isotopes, the most during World War II Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland · (mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper).^[1][2] Another notable exception is in high-end audio cables High-end audio cables are claimed to improve the sound quality of high-fidelity audio systems but whether they actually do is hotly disputed. Since the audio signal passes through cables on its way from the source to the amplifier, or from the amplifier to the speakers, the cables will affect that signal. Whether or not the effects are measurable.^[3]

Among metals, pure silver has the highest thermal conductivity In physics, thermal conductivity, k, is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat. It appears primarily in Fourier's Law for heat conduction. Thermal conductivity is measured in watts per kelvin per metre . Multiplied by a temperature difference (in kelvins, K) and an area (in square metres, m2), and divided by a^[4] (the non-metal diamond In mineralogy, diamond is an allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at ambient conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative and superfluid Superfluidity is a phase of matter or description of heat capacity in which unusual effects are observed when liquids, typically of helium-4 or helium-3, overcome friction by surface interaction when at a stage at which the liquid's viscosity becomes zero. Also known as a major facet in the study of quantum hydrodynamics, it was discovered by helium II Helium is the chemical element with atomic number 2 and an atomic weight of 4.002602, which is represented by the symbol He. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert monatomic gas that heads the noble gas group in the periodic table. Its boiling and melting points are the lowest among the elements and it exists only as a gas except are higher) and one of the highest optical reflectivity In photometry and heat transfer, reflectivity is the fraction of incident radiation reflected by a surface. In general it must be treated as a directional property that is a function of the reflected direction, the incident direction, and the incident wavelength. However it is also commonly averaged over the reflected hemisphere to give the.^[5] (Aluminium Aluminium (UK: /ˌæljʉˈmɪniəm/ AL-yew-MIN-ee-əm) or aluminum (US: /əˈluːmɨnəm/ ( listen) ə-LOO-mi-nəm) is a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It has the symbol Al and its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth' slightly outdoes silver in parts of the visible spectrum, and silver is a poor reflector of ultraviolet Ultraviolet light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than x-rays, in the range 10 nm to 400 nm, and energies from 3eV to 124 eV. It is so named because the spectrum consists of electromagnetic waves with frequencies higher than those that humans identify as the colour violet light). Silver also has the lowest contact resistance The term contact resistance refers to the contribution to the total resistance of a material which comes from the electrical leads and connections as opposed to the intrinsic resistance, which is an inherent property, independent of the measurement method. Placing the test probes of an ohmmeter onto the leads of an 100 ohm resistor, a scientist of any metal. Silver halides A silver halide is one of the compounds formed between silver and one of the halogens — silver bromide , chloride (AgCl), iodide (AgI), and three forms of silver fluorides. As a group, they are often referred to as the silver halides, and are often given the pseudo-chemical notation AgX. Although most silver halides involve silver atoms with are photosensitive Sensitivity of the skin to a light source can take various forms. People with particular skin types are more sensitive to sunburn. Particular medications make the skin more sensitive to sunlight; these include most of the tetracycline antibiotics, heart drugs amiodarone, and sulfonamides. Particular conditions lead to increased light sensitivity and are remarkable for their ability to record a latent image A latent image on photographic film is an invisible image produced by the exposure of the film to light. When the film is developed, the area that was exposed darkens and forms a visible image. In the early days of photography, the nature of the invisible change in the silver halide crystals of the film's emulsion coating was unknown, so the image that can later be developed chemically. Silver is stable in pure air and water, but tarnishes when it is exposed to air or water containing ozone or hydrogen sulfide to form a black layer of silver sulfide which can be cleaned off with dilute hydrochloric acid.^[6] The most common oxidation state of silver is +1 (for example, silver nitrate: AgNO₃); in addition, +2 compounds (for example, silver(II) fluoride: AgF₂) and the less common +3 compounds (for example, potassium tetrafluoroargentate: K[AgF₄] ) are known.

Creation

Silver is created via the long S-process in low-medium mass stars (.6 -> 10 solar masses). This takes thousands of years to do.

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of silver

Naturally occurring silver is composed of two stable isotopes, ¹⁰⁷Ag and ¹⁰⁹Ag, with ¹⁰⁷Ag being the most abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Silver's atomic weight is 107.8682(2) g/mol.^[7][8] Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being ¹⁰⁵Ag with a half-life of 41.29 days, ¹¹¹Ag with a half-life of 7.45 days, and ¹¹²Ag with a half-life of 3.13 hours. This element has numerous meta states, the most stable being ^108mAg (t_1/2 = 418 years), ^110mAg (t_1/2 = 249.79 days) and ^106mAg (t_1/2 = 8.28 days). All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 3 minutes.

Isotopes of silver range in relative atomic mass from 93.943 (⁹⁴Ag) to 126.936 (¹²⁷Ag);^[9] the primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, ¹⁰⁷Ag, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before ¹⁰⁷Ag are palladium (element 46) isotopes, and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.

The palladium isotope ¹⁰⁷Pd decays by beta emission to ¹⁰⁷Ag with a half-life of 6.5 million years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high-enough palladium-to-silver ratio to yield measurable variations in ¹⁰⁷Ag abundance. Radiogenic ¹⁰⁷Ag was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978.^[10] The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. ¹⁰⁷Pd–¹⁰⁷Ag correlations observed in bodies that have clearly been melted since the accretion of the solar system must reflect the presence of unstable nuclides in the early solar system.^[11]

Compounds

Silver metal dissolves readily in nitric acid (HNO₃) to produce silver nitrate (AgNO₃), a transparent crystalline solid that is photosensitive and readily soluble in water. Silver nitrate is used as the starting point for the synthesis of many other silver compounds, as an antiseptic, and as a yellow stain for glass in stained glass. Silver metal does not react with sulfuric acid, which is used in jewellery-making to clean and remove copper oxide firescale from silver articles after silver soldering or annealing. However, silver reacts readily with sulfur or hydrogen sulfide H₂S to produce silver sulfide, a dark-colored compound familiar as the tarnish on silver coins and other objects. Silver sulfide also forms silver whiskers when silver electrical contacts are used in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide.

Cessna 210 equipped with a silver iodide generator for cloud seeding

Silver chloride (AgCl) is precipitated from solutions of silver nitrate in the presence of chloride ions, and the other silver halides used in the manufacture of photographic emulsions are made in the same way using bromide or iodide salts. Silver chloride is used in glass electrodes for pH testing and potentiometric measurement, and as a transparent cement for glass. Silver iodide has been used in attempts to seed clouds to produce rain.^[6] Silver halides are highly insoluble in aqueous solutions and are used in gravimetric analytical methods.

Silver oxide (Ag₂O) produced when silver nitrate solutions are treated with a base, is used as a positive electrode (cathode) in watch (batteries.) Silver carbonate (Ag₂CO₃) is precipitated when silver nitrate is treated with sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃).^[12]

Silver fulminate (AgONC), a powerful, touch-sensitive explosive used in percussion caps, is made by reaction of silver metal with nitric acid in the presence of ethanol (C₂H₅OH). Another dangerously explosive silver compound is silver azide (AgN₃), formed by reaction of silver nitrate with sodium azide (NaN₃).^[13]

Latent images formed in silver halide crystals are developed by treatment with alkaline solutions of reducing agents such as hydroquinone, metol (4-(methylamino)phenol sulfate) or ascorbate which reduce the exposed halide to silver metal. Alkaline solutions of silver nitrate can be reduced to silver metal by reducing sugars such as glucose, and this reaction is used to silver glass mirrors and the interior of glass Christmas ornaments. Silver halides are soluble in solutions of sodium thiosulfate (Na₂S₂O₃) which is used as a photographic fixer, to remove excess silver halide from photographic emulsions after image development.^[12]

Silver metal is attacked by strong oxidizers such as potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) and potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇), and in the presence of potassium bromide (KBr), these compounds are used in photography to bleach silver images, converting them to silver halides that can either be fixed with thiosulfate or re-developed to intensify the original image. Silver forms cyanide complexes (silver cyanide) that are soluble in water in the presence of an excess of cyanide ions. Silver cyanide solutions are used in electroplating of silver.^[12]

Applications

Many well known uses of silver involve its precious metal properties, including currency, decorative items and mirrors. The contrast between the appearance of its bright white color in contrast with other media makes it very useful to the visual arts. It has also long been used to confer high monetary value as objects (such as silver coins and investment bars) or make objects symbolic of high social or political rank.

Currency

Main articles: Silver coin and Silver standard

Silver, in the form of electrum (a gold-silver alloy), was coined to produce money in around 700 BC by the Lydians. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. Many nations used silver as the basic unit of monetary value. In the modern world, silver bullion has the ISO currency code XAG. The name of the United Kingdom monetary unit "pound" (£) reflects the fact that it originally represented the value of one troy pound of sterling silver. In the 1800s, many nations, such as the United States and Great Britain, switched from silver to a gold standard of monetary value, then in the 20th century to fiat currency.

Jewelry and silverware

Goddess Minerva on a Roman silver plate, 1st century BC Main articles: jewellery and silversmith

Jewellery and silverware are traditionally made from sterling silver (standard silver), an alloy of 92.5% silver with 7.5% copper. In the US, only an alloy consisting of at least 92.5% fine silver can be marketed as "silver" (thus frequently stamped 925). Sterling silver is harder than pure silver, and has a lower melting point (893 °C) than either pure silver or pure copper.^[6] Britannia silver is an alternative hallmark-quality standard containing 95.8% silver, often used to make silver tableware and wrought plate. With the addition of germanium, the patented modified alloy Argentium Sterling Silver is formed, with improved properties including resistance to firescale.

Sterling silver jewelry is often plated with a thin coat of .999 fine silver to give the item a shiny finish. This process is called "flashing". Silver jewelry can also be plated with rhodium (for a bright, shiny look) or gold.

Silver is a constituent of almost all colored carat gold alloys and carat gold solders, giving the alloys paler color and greater hardness.^[14] White 9 carat gold contains 62.5% silver and 37.5% gold, while 22 carat gold contains up to 8.4% silver or 8.4% copper.^[14]

Historically the training and guild organization of goldsmiths included silversmiths as well, and the two crafts remain largely overlapping. Unlike blacksmiths, silversmiths do not shape the metal while it is red-hot but instead, work it at room temperature with gentle and carefully placed hammerblows. The essence of silversmithing is to take a flat piece of metal and by means of different hammers, stakes and other simple tools, to transform it into a useful object.^[15]

While silversmiths specialize in, and principally work, silver, they also work with other metals such as gold, copper, steel, and brass. They make jewellery, silverware, armour, vases, and other artistic items. Because silver is such a malleable metal, silversmiths have a large range of choices with how they prefer to work the metal. Historically, silversmiths are mostly referred to as goldsmiths, which was usually the same guild. In the western Canadian silversmith tradition, guilds do not exist; however, mentoring through colleagues becomes a method of professional learning within a community of craftspeople.^[16]

Silver is cheaper than gold, though still valuable, and so is very popular with jewelers who are just starting out and cannot afford to make pieces in gold, or as a practicing material for goldsmith apprentices. Silver has also become very fashionable, and is used frequently in more artistic jewellery pieces.

Traditionally silversmiths mostly made "silverware" (cutlery, table flatware, bowls, candlesticks and such). Only in more recent times has silversmithing become mainly work in jewellery, as much less solid silver tableware is now handmade.

Silver is used for awards medals, denoting second place. Some high-end musical instruments are made from sterling silver, such as the flute.

Dentistry

Silver can be alloyed with mercury, tin and other metals at room temperature to make amalgams that are widely used for dental fillings. To make dental amalgam, a mixture of powdered silver and other metals is mixed with mercury to make a stiff paste that can be adapted to the shape of a cavity. The dental amalgam achieves initial hardness within minutes but sets hard in a few hours.

Photography and electronics

Photography used 30.98% of the silver consumed in 1998 in the form of silver nitrate and silver halides. In 2001, 23.47% was used for photography, while 20.03% was used in jewelry, 38.51% for industrial uses, and only 3.5% for coins and medals. The use of silver in photography has rapidly declined, due to the lower demand for consumer color film from the advent of digital technology, since in 2007 of the 894.5 million ounces of silver in supply, just 128.3 million ounces (14.3%) were consumed by the photographic sector, and the total amount of silver consumed in 2007 by the photographic sector compared to 1998 is just 50%.^[17]

Some electrical and electronic products use silver for its superior conductivity, even when tarnished. For example, printed circuits can be made using silver paints,^[6] and computer keyboards use silver electrical contacts. Some high-end audio hardware (DACs, preamplifiers, etc.) are fully silver-wired, which is believed to cause the least loss of quality in the signal. Silver cadmium oxide is used in high voltage contacts because it can withstand arcing.

During World War II the short supply of copper brought about the United States government's use of silver from the Treasury vaults for conductors at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. (After the war ended the silver was returned to the vaults.)^[18]

Small devices such as hearing aids and watches commonly use Silver oxide batteries due to their long life and high energy/weight ratio. Another usage is high-capacity silver-zinc and silver-cadmium batteries.

Mirrors and optics

Mirrors which need superior reflectivity for visible light are made with silver as the reflecting material in a process called silvering, though common mirrors are backed with aluminium. Using a process called sputtering, silver (and sometimes gold) can be applied to glass at various thicknesses, allowing different amounts of light to penetrate. Silver is usually reserved for coatings of specialized optics, and the silvering most often seen in architectural glass and tinted windows on vehicles is produced by sputtered aluminium, which is cheaper and less susceptible to tarnishing and corrosion.^[19] Silver is the reflective coating of choice for solar reflectors.^[20]

Other industrial and commercial applications

Yanagisawa A9932J alto saxophone: has a solid silver bell and neck with solid phosphor bronze body. The bell, neck and key-cups are extensively engraved. Manufactured in 2008

Silver's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a catalyst in oxidation reactions, for example, the production of formaldehyde from methanol and air by means of silver screens or crystallites containing a minimum 99.95 weight-percent silver. Silver (upon some suitable support) is probably the only catalyst available today to convert ethylene to ethylene oxide (later hydrolyzed to ethylene glycol, used for making polyesters)— an important industrial reaction. Because silver readily absorbs free neutrons, it is commonly used to make control rods that regulate the fission chain reaction in pressurized water nuclear reactors, generally in the form of an alloy containing 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium. Silver is used to make solder and brazing alloys, and as a thin layer on bearing surfaces can provide a significant increase in galling resistance and reduce wear under heavy load, particularly against steel.

Medicinal

Main article: Medical uses of silver

Silver ions and silver compounds show a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi, typical for heavy metals like lead or mercury, but without the high toxicity to humans that are normally associated with these other metals. Its germicidal effects kill many microbial organisms in vitro, but testing and standardization of silver products is difficult.^[21]

Hippocrates, the "father of medicine",^[22] wrote that silver had beneficial healing and anti-disease properties, and the Phoenicians used to store water, wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. In the early 1900s people would put silver coins in milk bottles to prolong the milk's freshness.^[23] Its germicidal effects increased its value in utensils and as jewellery. The exact process of silver's germicidal effect is still not entirely understood, although theories exist. One of these is the oligodynamic effect, which explains the effect on microorganisms but would not explain antiviral effects.

Silver is widely used in topical gels and impregnated into bandages because of its wide-spectrum antimicrobial activity. The anti-microbial properties of silver stem from the chemical properties of its ionized form, Ag⁺. This ion forms strong molecular bonds with other substances used by bacteria to respire, such as molecules containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen.^[24] When the Ag⁺ ion forms a complex with these molecules, they are rendered unusable by the bacteria, depriving them of necessary compounds and eventually leading to the bacteria's death.

Silver compounds were used to prevent infection in World War I before the advent of antibiotics. Silver nitrate solution use continued, then was largely replaced by silver sulfadiazine cream (SSD Cream),^[25] which generally became the "standard of care" for the antibacterial and antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990s.^[26] Now, other options, such as silver-coated dressings (activated silver dressings), are used in addition to SSD cream. However, the evidence for the effectiveness of such silver-treated dressings is mixed and although the evidence is promising it is marred by the poor quality of the trials used to assess these products.^[27][28] Consequently a systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration (published in 2008) found insufficient evidence to recommend the use of silver-treated dressings to treat infected wounds.^[28]

There has been renewed interest in silver as a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent. One application has silver being used with alginate, a naturally occurring biopolymer derived from seaweed, in a range of products designed to prevent infections as part of wound management procedures, particularly applicable to burn victims.^[29] The year 2007, saw the first antibacterial glass introduced to fight hospital-caught infection: it is covered with a thin layer of silver.^[30] In addition, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently approved an endotracheal breathing tube with a fine coat of silver for use in mechanical ventilation, after studies found it reduced the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia.^[31]

Another example uses the known enhanced antibacterial action of silver by applying an electric field. It was found recently that the antibacterial action of silver electrodes is greatly improved if the electrodes are covered with silver nanorods.^[32]

Silver is commonly used in catheters. Silver alloy catheters are more effective than standard catheters for reducing bacteriuria in adults in hospital having short term catheterisation. This meta-analysis clarifies discrepant results among trials of silver-coated urinary catheters by revealing that silver alloy catheters are significantly more effective in preventing urinary tract infections than are silver oxide catheters. Though silver alloy urinary catheters cost about $6 more than standard urinary catheters, they may be worth the extra cost since catheter-related infection is a common cause of nosocomial infection and bacteremia.^[33]

Various silver compounds, devices to make homeopathic solutions and colloidal silver suspensions are sold as remedies for numerous conditions. Although most colloidal silver preparations are harmless, there are cases where excessive use led to argyria over a period of months or years.^[34] High doses of colloidal silver can result in coma, pleural edema, and hemolysis.^[35]

Clothing

Silver inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi. It keeps odor to a minimum and reduces the risk of bacterial and fungal infection. In clothing, the combination of silver and moisture movement (wicking) may help to reduce the harmful effects of prolonged use in active and humid conditions.

Silver is used in clothing in two main forms:

• A form in which silver ions are integrated into the polymer from which yarns are made (a form of nanotechnology)
• A form in which the silver is coated onto the yarns.

In both cases the silver prevents the growth of a broad spectrum of bacteria and fungi.

History

The crescent Moon has been used since ancient times to represent silver.

Silver has been used for thousands of years for ornaments and utensils, for trade, and as the basis for many monetary systems. Its value as a precious metal was long considered second only to gold. The word "silver" appears in Anglo-Saxon in various spellings such as seolfor and siolfor. A similar form is seen throughout the Teutonic languages (compare Old High German silabar and silbir). The chemical symbol Ag is from the Latin for "silver", argentum (compare Greek άργυρος, árgyros), from the Indo-European root *arg- meaning "white" or "shining". Silver has been known since ancient times. Mentioned in the book of Genesis, slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that silver was being separated from lead as early as the 4th millennium BC using surface mining.^[6]

The stability of the Roman currency relied to a high degree on the supply of silver bullion which Roman miners produced on a scale unparalleled before the discovery of the New World.^[36][37] Reaching a peak production of 200 t per year, an estimated silver stock of 10,000 t circulated in the Roman economy in the mid-2nd century AD, five to ten times larger than the combined amount of silver available to medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.^[36][37]

Recorded use of silver to prevent infection dates to ancient Greece and Rome, it was rediscovered in the Middle Ages, where it was used for several purposes, such as to disinfect water and food during storage, and also for the treatment of burns and wounds as wound dressing. In the 19th century, sailors on long ocean voyages would put silver coins in barrels of water and wine to keep the liquid pure. Pioneers in America used the same idea as they made their journey from coast to coast. Silver solutions were approved in the 1920s by the US Food and Drug Administration for use as antibacterial agents.

In the Gospels, Jesus' disciple Judas Iscariot is infamous for having taken a bribe of thirty coins of silver from religious leaders in Jerusalem to turn Jesus Christ over to the Romans.

In certain circumstances, Islam permits Muslim men to wear silver jewelry. Muhammad himself wore a silver signet ring^{[citation needed]}.

Occurrence and extraction

Main article: Silver mining Silver ore Time trend of silver production

Silver is found in native form, as an alloy with gold (see also: electrum), and in ores containing sulfur, arsenic, antimony or chlorine. Ores include argentite (Ag₂S), chlorargyrite (AgCl) which includes horn silver , and pyrargyrite (Ag₃SbS₃). The principal sources of silver are the ores of copper, copper-nickel, lead, and lead-zinc obtained from Peru, Mexico, China, Australia, Chile, Poland and Serbia.^[6] Peru and Mexico have been mining silver since 1546 and are still major world producers. Top silver-producing mines are Proaño / Fresnillo (Mexico), Cannington (Queensland, Australia), Dukat (Russia), Uchucchacua (Peru) and Greens Creek mine (Alaska).^[38]

The metal is primarily produced through electrolytic copper refining, gold, nickel and zinc refining, and by application of the Parkes process on lead metal obtained from lead ores that contain small amounts of silver. Commercial-grade fine silver is at least 99.9% pure, and purities greater than 99.999% (five 9s) are available. In 2007, Peru was the world's top producer of silver, closely followed by Mexico, according to the British Geological Survey.^{[clarification needed]}

Price

Main articles: Silver as an investment and Silver standard Silver output in 2005

As of June 2010 Au/Ag is 67. Ag at $18 (October 2008 silver is about 1/75th of the price of gold by mass).^[39] Silver once traded at 1/6th to 1/12th the price of gold, prior to the Age of Discovery and the discovery of great silver deposits in the Americas, including Peru, Mexico and the United States, such as the vast Comstock Lode in Virginia City, Nevada, US. The glut prompted a prolonged and difficult political debate over US monetary policy and US Mint operations: Free Silver conversion similar to gold minting practice. This remained in public discourse during the latter two decades of the 19h century and into the 20th.^[40]

Over the last 100 years the price of silver and the gold/silver price ratio have fluctuated greatly due to competing industrial and store-of-value demands. In 1980 the silver price rose to an all-time high of US$49.45 per troy ounce (T.O.) due to market manipulation of Nelson Bunker Hunt and Herbert Hunt some time after the Silver Thursday the price was back to $10 per troy ounce.^[41] By December 2001 the price had dropped to US$4.15/T.O., and in May 2006 it had risen back as high as US$15.21/T.O. In March 2008 silver reached US$21.34/T.O.^[42]

The price of silver is important in Judaic Law. The lowest fiscal amount that a Jewish court, or Beth Din, can convene to adjudicate a case over is a shova pruta (value of a Babylonian pruta coin). This is fixed at 1/8 of a gram of pure, unrefined silver, at market price.

Precautions

Silver plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of silver are a disputed subject. Silver itself is not toxic but most silver salts are, and some may be carcinogenic.^{[dubious – discuss]} Silver and compounds containing silver (like colloidal silver) can be absorbed into the circulatory system and become deposited in various body tissues leading to a condition called argyria which results in a blue-grayish pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Although this condition does not otherwise harm a person's health, it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Argyria is rare, and mild forms are sometimes mistaken for cyanosis.^[6]

Monitoring excessive human exposure

Overexposure to silver can occur in workers in the metallurgical industry, persons taking silver-containing dietary supplements, patients who have received silver sulfadiazine treatment and individuals who accidentally or intentionally ingest silver salts. Silver concentrations in whole blood, plasma, serum or urine may be measured to monitor for safety in exposed workers, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage.^[43]

See also

• List of silver compounds
• Silverpoint drawing
• Vark - a pastry/confectionery decoration

References

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20. ^ Jaworske, D.A. (1997). "Reflectivity of silver and silver-coated substrates from 25 °C to 800 °C (for solar collectors)". Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, 1997. IECEC-97., Proceedings of the 32nd Intersociety 1: 407. doi:10.1109/IECEC.1997.659223. ISBN 0-7803-4515-0.
21. ^ Chopra, I (2007). "The increasing use of silver-based products as antimicrobial agents: a useful development or a cause for concern?". The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy 59 (4): 587–90. doi:10.1093/jac/dkm006. PMID 17307768.
22. ^ Magner, Lois N. (1992). "Hippocrates and the Hippocratic Tradition". A history of medicine. Marcel Dekker. pp. 66–68. ISBN 9780824786731.
23. ^ "Antibacterial effects of silver". http://www.saltlakemetals.com/Silver_Antibacterial.htm.
24. ^ Slawson RM, Van Dyke MI, Lee H, Trevors JT (1992). "Germanium and silver resistance, accumulation, and toxicity in microorganisms". Plasmid 27 (1): 72–9. doi:10.1016/0147-619X(92)90008-X. PMID 1741462.
25. ^ Chang TW, Weinstein L (1975). "Prevention of herpes keratoconjunctivitis in rabbits by silver sulfadiazine". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 8 (6): 677–8. PMID 1211919.
26. ^ Atiyeh BS, Costagliola M, Hayek SN, Dibo SA (2007). "Effect of silver on burn wound infection control and healing: review of the literature". Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries 33 (2): 139–48. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2006.06.010. PMID 17137719.
27. ^ "Silver in Textiles and Clothing". Americanelements.com. http://www.americanelements.com/agnp.html. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
28. ^ ^{a b} Lo SF, Hayter M, Chang CJ, Hu WY, Lee LL (2008). "A systematic review of silver-releasing dressings in the management of infected chronic wounds". Journal of clinical nursing 17 (15): 1973–85. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02264.x. PMID 18705778.
29. ^ Hermans MH (2006). "Silver-containing dressings and the need for evidence". The American journal of nursing 106 (12): 60–8; quiz 68–9. PMID 17133010.
30. ^ "AGC Flat Glass Europe launches world’s first antibacterial glass". 2007-09-04. http://www.agc-flatglass.eu/AGC+Flat+Glass+Europe/English/Homepage/News/Press+room/Press-Detail-Page/page.aspx/979?pressitemid=1031.
31. ^ "FDA Clears Silver-Coated Breathing Tube For Marketing". 2007-11-08. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01741.html. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
32. ^ Akhavan, O. and Ghaderi, E. (2009). "Enhancement of antibacterial properties of Ag nanorods by electric field" (free download pdf). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 10: 015003. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/10/1/015003. http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1468-6996/10/1/015003/stam9_1_015003.pdf.
33. ^ Saint, Sanjay et al. (1998). "The efficacy of silver alloy-coated urinary catheters in preventing urinary tract infection: a meta-analysis". American Journal of Medicine 105 (3): 236–241. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00240-X. PMID 9753027.
34. ^ Fung MC, Bowen DL (1996). "Silver products for medical indications: risk-benefit assessment". Journal of toxicology. Clinical toxicology 34 (1): 119–26. doi:10.3109/15563659609020246 (inactive 2010-03-19). PMID 8632503.
35. ^ Wadhera A, Fung M (2005). "Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal silver". Dermatology online journal 11 (1): 12. PMID 15748553. http://dermatology.cdlib.org/111/case_reports/argyria/wadhera.html.
36. ^ ^{a b} Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (216, table 2; 228, table 6)
37. ^ ^{a b} Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.)
38. ^ "Top silver producers". Infomine.com. http://www.infomine.com/commodities/silver.asp. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
39. ^ O’Connell, Rhona. "Gold:silver ratio will narrow, but base metals outlook ultra-gloomy – UBS". Mineweb.com. http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page33?oid=71867&sn=Detail. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
40. ^ Answers.com, Sherman Silver Purchase Act; accessed 2009.04.08.
41. ^ Abolafia, Mitchel Y; Kilduff, Martin (1988). "Enacting Market Crisis: The Social Construction of a Speculative Bubble". Administrative Science Quarterly 33 (2): 177–193. http://www.jstor.org/pss/2393054.
42. ^ "Silver Cash daily plot". Barchart.com. http://charts3.barchart.com/chart.asp?sym=SIY0&data=A&jav=adv&vol=Y&evnt=adv&grid=Y&code=BSTK&org=stk&fix=.
43. ^ R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 1429-1431.

External links

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Look up silver in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• WebElements.com – Silver
• Society of American Silversmiths
• Silver Statistics and Information, USGS publications on the worldwide production of silver
• The Silver Institute A silver industry website
• A collection of silver items Samples of silver
• Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment
• Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok
• Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Silver

Periodic table
H																															He
Li	Be																									B	C	N	O	F	Ne
Na	Mg																									Al	Si	P	S	Cl	Ar
K	Ca															Sc	Ti	V	Cr	Mn	Fe	Co	Ni	Cu	Zn	Ga	Ge	As	Se	Br	Kr
Rb	Sr															Y	Zr	Nb	Mo	Tc	Ru	Rh	Pd	Ag	Cd	In	Sn	Sb	Te	I	Xe
Cs	Ba	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu	Hf	Ta	W	Re	Os	Ir	Pt	Au	Hg	Tl	Pb	Bi	Po	At	Rn
Fr	Ra	Ac	Th	Pa	U	Np	Pu	Am	Cm	Bk	Cf	Es	Fm	Md	No	Lr	Rf	Db	Sg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Uuq	Uup	Uuh	Uus	Uuo
Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Lanthanides Actinides Transition metals Other metals Metalloids Other nonmetals Halogens Noble gases
Large version

Silver compounds AgBF4 · AgBr · AgBrO3 · AgCN · AgCNO · AgCl · AgClO3 · AgClO4 · AgF · AgF2 · AgI · AgIO3 · AgNO3 · AgN3 · Ag3N · AgO · AgPF6 · Ag2CO3 · Ag2C2 · Ag2C2O4 · Ag2CrO4 · Ag2F · Ag2MoO4 · Ag2O · Ag2S · Ag2SO4 · Ag2Se · Ag2SeO3 · Ag2Te · Ag3PO4

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